Protoperidinium are <\/span>dinoflagellate<\/span>s<\/span>. <\/span>Dinoflagellates are <\/span>\u201c<\/span>small single-celled organisms, which swim freely in water with a forward spiraling motion <\/span>propelled by dimorphic flagella\u2026<\/span> c<\/span>ells have plates as a cell covering, and numerous cellular structures: chloroplasts mitochondria and nucleus, which set them apart from other groups of land plants <\/span>belonging to microscopic algae\u201d <\/span>(“Dinoflagellates”, 2016)<\/span>.<\/span> <\/span>Protoperidinium<\/span> <\/span>cell<\/span>s<\/span> is globular, polygonal, or equipped with<\/span> \u201chorns\u201d<\/span> <\/span>(“Protoperidinium”, <\/span>n.d.<\/span>)<\/span>. For one species, <\/span>Protoperidinium <\/span>oceanicum<\/span><\/em>, there is <\/span>one long slender horn<\/span> on top <\/span>of their cell<\/span> <\/span>and two at the bottom<\/span> <\/span>(“Protoperidinium <\/em><\/span>oceanicum<\/span><\/em>“, 2012)<\/span>.<\/span> Protoperidinium are heterotrophic. They reproduce both sexually and asexually <\/span>(“Protoperidinium”, <\/span>n.d.<\/span>). <\/span>Some protoperidinium are <\/span>also <\/span>bioluminescent <\/span>(<\/span>Buskey<\/span>, Coulter, & Brown, 1994).<\/span><\/p>\n Different protoperidinium species are found in different habitats and many occur seasonally.<\/span> <\/span>P.<\/span> <\/span>oceanicum<\/span><\/em> occur<\/span>s<\/span> in both coastal and oceanic waters from temperate to tropical areas. <\/span>Another species<\/span>,<\/span> <\/span>P.<\/span> <\/span>claudicans<\/span><\/em>, <\/span>is found <\/span>in coastal, estuarine, and oceanic waters from temperate to tropical waters but only in the spring and summer <\/span>(“Protoperidinium <\/em><\/span>claudicans<\/span><\/em>“, 2012). <\/span>P.<\/span><\/em> <\/span>steinii<\/span> <\/span>occurs in <\/span>just <\/span>neritic and oceanic waters worldwide, bu<\/span>t only from<\/span> summer to <\/span>autumn<\/span> (“Protoperidinium <\/span>steinii<\/span>“, 2012)<\/span>.<\/span><\/p>\n Protoperidinium<\/span> <\/span>colors <\/span>often <\/span>vary depend<\/span>ing on the type of prey they consume<\/span>. For <\/span>P. <\/span>steinii<\/span><\/em>, it can be<\/span> either<\/span> clea<\/span>r, pink, or yellow in color <\/span>(“Protoperidinium <\/span>steinii<\/span>“, 2012)<\/span>. Many protoperidinium<\/span> <\/span>feed by \u201cextruding their cytoplasm out of their theca in the form of a pseudopodium and engulfing the prey items\u201d <\/span>(“<\/span>Protoperidinium <\/span>o<\/span>ceanicum<\/span>“, 2012)<\/span>. <\/span>Once the prey is absorbed, the cytoplasm retracts itself back into its theca. <\/span><\/span>A 1997 study found that<\/span> cultured<\/span> <\/span>P. <\/span>pellucidum<\/span><\/em> <\/span>fed<\/span> selectively on diatom species <\/span>over dinoflagellates <\/span>and<\/span> selected<\/span> between diatom species. It appeared to use chemoreception as the major sensory mode to detect and locate its prey. When <\/span>P<\/span>.<\/span> <\/span>pellucidum<\/span><\/em> passed a food particle, it would circle a few times before attaching to it, apparently using chemoreception to judge the location of the prey <\/span>(<\/span>Buskey<\/span>, 1997).<\/span><\/p>\n<\/div>\n<\/div>\n The original photo can be found here: http:\/\/media.nordicmicroalgae.org\/large\/Protoperidinium%20depressum_2.jpg<\/p><\/div><\/p>\n O<\/span>ne of the ways p<\/span>rotoperidinium and other dinoflagellates are important <\/span>is that they contribute to the decline of<\/span> some<\/span> algal blooms (<\/span>Jeong<\/span> & <\/span>Latz<\/span>, 1994). <\/span>Many dinoflagellates are also \u201cprimary producers of food in the aquatic food webs. Dinoflagellates are an integral part of the first link in the aquatic food chain: the initial transfer of light energy to chemical energy (photosynthesis). Almost all other organisms are dependent upon this energy transfer for their subsequent existence\u201d <\/span>(“Dinoflagellates”, 2016).<\/span><\/p>\n During my observations of protoperidinium, I learned how the organisms moved<\/span> in a spinning or spiraling fashion<\/span>.<\/span> After diving into literature, I learned that protoperidinium is<\/span> a<\/span> complex genus, with many <\/span>morphologically unique <\/span>species<\/span> that all have different preferred habitats and prey<\/span>. What lesson can they teach us humans? During alg<\/span>al blooms (red tides for example), which can cause large scale mortalities of fish and shellfish, some protoperidinium graze on the bloom and help extinguish it. Only by grazing together can the bloom be affected by the protoperidinium.<\/span> To them it\u2019s just feeding but p<\/span>erhaps we could<\/span> learn<\/span> from this organisms and <\/span>remember that solving our planet\u2019s problems <\/span>are best solved by working together. In my protoperidinium animation, the background is completely pink to represent a protoperidinium bloom, ready to feed on the next red tide.<\/span><\/p>\n Buskey<\/span>, E. (1997). Behavioral components of feeding selectivity of the heterotrophic dinoflagellate Protoperidinium <\/span>pellucidum<\/span>. <\/span>Marine Ecology Progress Series<\/span>, <\/span>153<\/span>, 77-89. <\/span>http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3354\/meps153077<\/span><\/a><\/p>\n Buskey<\/span>, E., Coulter, C., & Brown, S. (1994). Feeding, growth and bioluminescence of the heterotrophic dinoflagellate Protoperidinium <\/span>huberi<\/span>. <\/span>Marine Biology<\/span>, <\/span>121<\/span>(2), 373-380. <\/span>http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.1007\/bf00346747<\/span><\/a> <\/span><\/p>\n Dinoflagellates<\/span>. (2016). <\/span>Naturalhistory.si.edu<\/span>. Retrieved 16 May 2016, from <\/span>http:\/\/naturalhistory.si.edu\/highlight\/sem\/dinoflagellates.html<\/span><\/a>\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n Jeong<\/span>, H. & <\/span>Latz<\/span>, M. (1994). Growth and grazing rates of the heterotrophic dinoflagellates Protoperidinium spp. on red tide dinoflagellates. <\/span>Marine Ecology Progress Series<\/span>, <\/span>106<\/span>, 173-185. <\/span>http:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.3354\/meps106173<\/span><\/a> <\/span><\/p>\n Protoperidinium <\/span>claudicans<\/span>. (2012). <\/span>Eoas.ubc.ca<\/span>. Retrieved 16 May 2016, from <\/span>https:\/\/www.eoas.ubc.ca\/research\/phytoplankton\/dinoflagellates\/protoperidinium\/p_claudicans.html<\/span><\/a> <\/span><\/p>\n Protoperidinium<\/span>. <\/span>Encyclopedia of Life<\/span>. Retrieved 16 May 2016, from <\/span>http:\/\/eol.org\/pages\/12620\/overview<\/span><\/a> <\/span><\/p>\n Protoperidinium <\/span>oceanicum<\/span>. <\/span>(<\/span>2012<\/span>)<\/span>. <\/span>Eoas.ubc.ca<\/span>. Retrieved 15 May 2016, from <\/span>https:\/\/www.eoas.ubc.ca\/research\/phytoplankton\/dinoflagellates\/protoperidinium\/p_oceanicum.html<\/span><\/a>. <\/span><\/p>\n![\"MelisaPinnowProtoperidium2\"](\"https:\/\/sites.evergreen.edu\/vms-spring\/wp-content\/uploads\/sites\/209\/2016\/05\/MelisaPinnowProtoperidium2-235x300.jpeg\")
Literature Cited<\/h3>\n